Participatory Learning and Action 29:

The contributors to the theme section of this issue of PLA Notes – the use of performative media in participatory development – examine how the creative potential of the arts can be used as part of a participatory process and how PRA practitioners might benefit from integrating performative and artistic media into the PRA process. Articles explore the use of participatory theatre to articulate and express the issues that affect people; the use of the language of theatre in participatory monitoring and evaluation; using ‘legislative theatre’ for policy research; using theatre in a participatory educational process; the use of visual and verbal art and video; intersections between theatre and PRA; and using drama in PRA training.

Editorial

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1. Analysing communication in participatory appraisal
Katrin Linzer and Robert Kowalski

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Abstract
This article critically examines PRA in terms of transaction analysis. The authors highlight the importance of attitudes and behaviour in determining levels of participation. Training PRA 'experts' and changing their biases and attitudes (both conscious and unconscious) are thus prerequisites for successful participatory appraisal.

2. Using PRA in organisational self-assessment
Michael Edwards

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Abstract
The author advocates the use of PRA for the evaluation of organisations. Highlighted is the need for a combination of appraisal methodologies so as to gain credibility in more sceptical bureaucratic institutions. The need for transparency amongst the evaluators is seen as fundamental.

3. Involving resource-poor farmers in agricultural extension
S.K. Pradhan

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Abstract
An account of how PRA techniques were used to improve understanding of small farmers in Tripura, India. PRA was seen to be useful in analysing why agricultural extension programmes were ineffective. The exercise also built capacity as farmers formed their own institution for agricultural research and problem solving.

4. How big should on-farm trials be and how many plots should be measured?
William J. Fielding and Janet Riley

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Abstract
A review of the effectiveness of agricultural research on farmers' farms. Problems with the scaling up of results are highlighted. How farmers assess the value of a technology is an important factor in considering take-up.

SPECIAL ISSUE:

Performance and Participation

5. Performance and participation: an overview
Andrea Cornwall

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Abstract

A review of different Theatre for Development (TfD) techniques. Performance is considered as a positive tool for participatory development. Theatre as a means for education and as empowerment to take action against oppression are two forms of TfD. Video as a means for raising self-awareness and as a tool for analysing PRA activities is also considered.

6. Theatre for development, participatory monitoring and cultural feedback
Alex Mavrocordatos

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Abstract
The use of Theatre for Development (TfD) techniques in monitoring project performance and participation is advocated by the author. Group mapping and drama can add 'colour' to formal monitoring processes. Participants are seen to reflect on their positions vis-a-vis the project and thus help analysis of project effectiveness.

7. Drama as a discussion starter in research and education
Korrie de Koning

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Abstract
A guide to Theatre for Development (TfD). Suggestions on how best to facilitate production of drama and how to motivate critical discussion of local issues. The need to be aware of the strong emotive capacity of performance is emphasised.

8. Theatre and video for development
Francis Harding

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Abstract
Theatre for Development (TfD) is considered as a tool for people to fictionalise reality and therefore communicate issues which otherwise are too sensitive. It offers opportunities to rehearse resolving real difficulties. Ethical issues relating to the ownership of video productions are also considered.

9. A day in the village with 'positive people' or 'neno nigi kute ayaki'
Lenin Ogolla

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Abstract
Theatre is used to illustrate how traditional practices and cultural norms can contribute to the propagation of the HIV virus. The drama is conducted in a fashion that highlights how different groups in a community have divergent views on an issue such as AIDS.

10. Rehearsing for reality: using role-play to transform attitudes and behaviour
Rose Mbowa

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Abstract
Drama is used with different groups of a community based on age and gender. Problems relating to gender relations and more specifically to do with sexual relations are discussed. A 'Stepping Stones' technique is used to draw out these sensitive issues. Attempts to get groups to understand each others' issues are made.

11. From acting to taking action: forum and legislative theatre
Adrian Jackson

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Abstract
This is a brief outline of two of Augusto Boal's techniques involving theatre in development situations. They are both drawn from the Theatre for the Oppressed. Forum Theatre is a method of interactive drama for considering possible solutions to oppression. Legislative Theatre is a dramatic process through which potential avenues for policy making are considered.

12. 'Asylum' - theatre for development in Oxford
Alison Norris

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Abstract
A summary of work carried out with asylum seekers and ex-detainees by a Forum Theatre partnership. The dramatisation of life histories was seen to be therapeutic for the subjects. Audience participation is seen as educational. Invisible theatre as a means for taking drama into real-life contexts is considered.

13. There's more than one art to creative PRA
Helen Gould

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Abstract
Various examples from all over the world, North and South, are used to show the diversity of tools which should be used in PRA. Not just drama but creative writing, music, painting, crafts...

14. Using participatory group activities to understand psycho-social strategies for coping with conflict
Dieneke van der Wijk

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Abstract
Drawing and role plays are shown to be methods for opening up debate and discussion around women's coping mechanisms in situations of armed conflict in Vietnam and Cambodia. The role of the facilitator is considered. Participation in theatre, song and dance is seen to build up trust amongst these women.

15. Giving people a voice rather than a message
Lars Johansson and Dominick de Waal

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Abstract
The use of video is considered here as a means for dialogue between local communities and official policy makers. The video as controlled by a Maasai community is found to be empowering. Local government however denies its validity. Video may have use as a means to overcome barriers of illiteracy.

16. Video: a tool for participation
Megan Lloyd Laney

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Abstract
Video has been introduced to a Zimbabwean community by an NGO with the purpose of facilitating exchange between farmers and empowering them to challenge researchers and policy makers. Training community members to use video is seen as an important step in encouraging community self analysis and as a means to building confidence.

17. Video and PRA in Eastern Burkina Faso
Eleanor Smithies

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Abstract
This article is concerned with the production of localised, accessible training videos. Videos of drama concerned with gender relations are seen to be a useful way of raising awareness. The creation of a small bank of video material can encourage critical analysis of the past and future.

18. The act of participation: a context for linking drama and PRA
Rachel Searle-Mbullu and Kate Norrish

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Abstract
The benefits of drama as a three dimensional representation of problems and dilemmas are highlighted. The immediacy of this approach is considered. The role of the development practitioner is minimised. Theatre for Development makes questions concerning the professionals' role in local development more explicit than other PRA techniques.

19. PRA and theatre for development in Southern India
Kirsty Smith, Susanna Wilford and Ruth O’Connell

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Abstract
The complementarity of PRA and Theatre for Development (TfD) is considered. Whilst PRA is seen as a tool to enable participants to highlight issues and analyse key concerns TfD can deepen this analysis and further empower people to address these issues. However, a commitment to participation and empowerment is essential or else there will be no real participation and it will become another top-down process.

20. Participatory approaches to the use of drama in sexual and reproductive health programmes
Gordon Gill

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Abstract
This article highlights the advantages and disadvantages of drama techniques vis-a-vis visualisation techniques. The potential complementarity of the two is discussed. Tools for using dramatic techniques for PLA are suggested.

21. Dramatic behaviour in participatory training
Koos Neefjes

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Abstract
The importance of the PRA facilitator's self - awareness is recognised, especially as concerns body-language, attitude and behaviour. Training techniques for facilitators are suggested. PRA can draw much from drama and the arts.

22. Drama, PRA and the academic institution
Pat Norrish

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Abstract
Examples of how to use some of Boal's theatre of the Oppressed techniques. The author focuses on Forum Theatre as a means of 'rehearsing for reality' and as a tool of political empowerment.

23. Feedback:

Time, representation and feedback in participatory programme design
Steve Evison, with a response from Meera Kaul Shah

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Abstract
Some of the problems in organising a community self-survey in Tanzania are considered. The advantages of local ownership, understanding and awareness are recognised as are the disadvantages of working through already established local government structures.

24. Extracts:

The need to cross-check the results of wealth ranking

N. Naraynasamy and S. Manivei

Sexuality lifelines:-participatory assessment of reproductive health

F. McConville

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25. A brief guide to group dynamics and team building

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Tips for Trainers:

Using drama in PRA training

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