Participatory Learning and Action 26:

This general issue of PLA Notes covers a range of topics, such as economics, agriculture, health and methodological innovation using case studies from 11 different countries.

Editorial

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1. Participatory environmental valuation of forest resources in the Aberdares, Kenya
Lucy Emerton and Hezron Mogaka

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Abstract
The article describes a process by which local perceptions of the value of forest resources can be translated into monetary values, which decision makers can understand. The process was used in a Kenyan context and was found to be useful in demonstrating some of the economic costs incurred by local communities when a central policy of forest protection is implemented. One problem recognised is that such a process may in fact facilitate further top down policy making and not lead to participation of local communities beyond the valuation.

2. Analysing the impact of macro-economic policies using PRA in Mwingi District, Kenya
Anton Simanowitz

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Abstract
This paper describes the use of participatory research to explore the impact of macro-economic policy, in particular Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs), on rural people's livelihoods. ActionAid led the initiative with the intention of furthering local peoples' capacities to analyse the effects of economic policy on their livelihoods and at the same time a way by which to demonstrate these effects to development agencies. It is hoped that more flexible development processes will be promoted to adapt to economic changes.

3.'Getting to grips with the future together': PRA projects in the Alpine regions of Switzerland
Maja Hürlimann and Heinz Jufer

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Abstract
A PRA approach was adopted by the Agricultural Extension Centre in Switzerland. It was used to initiate discussion and analysis amongst farmers so as to find ideas for the future of local agriculture. Local groups initially formed for the PRA exercise were still operational after eighteen months. It was found that the exercise was useful in overcoming some of the mistrust between farmers and the rest of the community.

4. How to deal with 1012 Ideas: PRA in an urban community in Switzerland
Peter Schmidt

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Abstract
The article describes the use of a metaplan or 'card and chart technique', by which vast quantities of data collected through PRA, can be effectively managed. The advantages and disadvantages of the metaplan approach are discussed. It is recognised that the process relies on a large quantity of materials, not always locally available and that there are steps within the process which tend to be dominated by outside facilitators.

5. Matrix ranking: a means to discussion
Stephany Kersten

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Abstract
The article describes the Matrix Ranking (MR) process, as applied to graziers' perceptions of plant species in New South Wales and compared with researchers ' perceptions. The groups' criteria for evaluation were found to be very different and the MR process helped both parties realise this. The discussions associated with the MR process are deemed to be as important as the results themselves. The compilation of more practical resource books for graziers might be a useful outcome of this process. In terms of PRA methodology it was found that MR was best carried out with individuals, rather than groups, who rarely come to a consensus.

6. Looking to the future: map drawing in Madah, Central Tanzania
Wilhelm Östberg

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Abstract
High quantities of small-scale farmers have begun to settle in the hills of central Tanzania. New communities have formed without the governance necessary to regulate in-coming settlers and their use of land. There is a lack of government and community policy focused on the settlement issue. A participatory mapping exercise in one such community was found to help the community analyse land use and think of measures to better manage future settlers.

7. A village picture book

Valentina Mazzucato and David Niemeijer

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Abstract
The article describes experiences with the use of a picture book for overcoming some of the difficult divisions made between locals and outside researchers in two contexts, in Burkina Faso and Holland. Local people take photographs depicting their daily life which assist researchers in understanding local practices. The community keeps the book as a record of the activity. Copies of the Dutch book and the one from Burkina Faso were exchanged between the communities. The books initiated interesting dialogues and these dialogues were interesting in their differences - for example connected with gender.

8. Living with STDs and AIDS: The Mother Saradadevi Social Service Society, India
Jaya Shreedhar

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Abstract
The article describes how PRA techniques such as mapping exercises, seasonal analyses, trend changes, timelines, well-being and wealth ranking, Venn diagrams and decision-making matrices were used to help the formation and functioning of women's groups. These women's groups were used as fora for the analysis of the spread of HIV and STDs. They helped in raising men's awareness of issues as well. The groups diversified their functions to become involved in saving and credit and agricultural extension too.

9. Participatory livelihood monitoring in Southern Sudan
Aidan Timlin

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Abstract
The article describes a livelihood monitoring system as used by Oxfam in collaboration with local NGOs, local administration and community members in Southern Sudan. The purpose of the system is to allow relief agencies to have up to date information concerning the socio-economic conditions of communities. Progress has been made with the system, but some of the problems are also highlighted - as concerns gender for example.

10. PRA in international agricultural research: first experiences in IIMI-Pakistan

Paul Gosselink and Anouk Hoebericht

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Abstract
The article analyses some of the constraints associated with the use of participatory research when applied to large scale irrigation systems. Furthermore, in the context of international research institutions, there is a problem in that the research does not directly link into action. A whole variety of stakeholders need to be considered in considering whole irrigation systems. The participatory processes advocated by the article will assist this analysis.

11. Involving farmers in the research planning process: smallholder attitudes to herbicide use
Daniel Alembi, Stella Nabwile and David Mburu

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Abstract
The report documents the first experience of a group of Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) scientists in using group interview techniques to incorporate the views of farmers into the research planning process. The objective was to understand more fully small farmers' use and understanding of herbicide. It was found that market factors and lack of information played pivotal roles in levels of herbicide use and understanding. Calls for on- farm- research are made.

12. Quality circles and institutional culture: a proposal

Anand Kumar

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Abstract
The article advocates the use of 'quality circles' - small groups of employees who evaluate their own work and suggest adaptive changes to management to improve organisational functioning. It is argued that such a participatory management structure is essential to any institution involved in participatory development. The 'quality circle' is very effective in initiating organisational change.

13. Process observation in PRA: guidelines and reflections
N. Narayanasamy and R Ramesh

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Abstract
The article advocates the use of 'Process Observation', a process by which PRA can be monitored and evaluated according to its functioning. Whilst PRA exercises are being carried out and after the exercises have been completed, observation is essential to ensure that PRA methodology is being adhered to and that processes of change have been initiated. A framework for this process is provided.

14. Feedback:

The timing dilemma
Million Gebreyes, with a response by Parmesh Shah

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Abstract
The article is a discussion between the two authors as to the need for attention to timing for initiation of PRA exercises in relation to project planning and implementation. Gebreyes relates how in an Ethiopian case study, due to the early initiation of PRA exercises, local communities became violently resistant to an irrigation scheme. Shah argues that it is not just a question of timing of PRA but transparency of dealings with communities.

15. Extracts:
Coloured papers
Gerhard Baum

Learning in the field
Agnes Mullaa

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16. Tips for Trainers:

Dominance and submission
Robert Chambers

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17. A brief guide to adult learning

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