Participatory Learning and Action 21:

This special issue of RRA Notes focuses on the use of participatory methodologies for research and project implementation in cities and towns, from both urban and rural perspectives. The first section of the issue discusses the ‘problem’ of applying participatory approaches in urban communities. The second section describes the complex characteristics of urban settings and how they differ from the type of rural contexts in which PRA is commonly used. It also compares and contrasts participatory approaches in urban and rural areas. The third section introduces the papers included here and considers their range and scope. The final section draws together the lessons emerging from the contributions of both PRA practitioners and urban development agents.

Editorial

Addressing the gaps or dispelling the myths? participatory approaches in low-income urban communities
Diana Mitlin and John Thompson

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Abstract
This overview article for this special issue of RRA Notes focusing on participatory tools and methods in urban areas introduces the papers included in the collection and highlights some of the key issues. It discusses the 'problem' of applying participatory approaches in urban communities, and compares participatory approaches in urban and rural areas. It finds that, despite clear economic, social and environmental differences between low-income rural and urban communities, they have many aspects in common. Rural and urban are inextricably linked, as the livelihoods of many low-income people depend on resources in both spheres. This reality is often obscured by the compartmentalisation of the development profession into 'rural' and 'urban' disciplines.

1. Urban management training, action learning and rapid Analysis methods
Philip Amis

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Abstract
An action learning approach using rapid analysis methods - a modified form of RRA - has been developed by the Development Administration Group (DAG) at the University of Birmingham. The approach has been used in urban management training courses run by DAG and the Town and Country Planning Organisation (TCPO) in the Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi, India. The aim of the methodology is to enhance problem-solving ability. This weakness in problem analysis has recently been identified as a central concern in the need to strengthen indigenous policy-making capacity. The article discusses the extent to which ideas about RRA can be transferred to the urban context and used in training programmes for government officials.

2. Rapid assessment procedures in urban communities: the experience of the health and habitat project in Barrio San Jorge, Argentina
Silvina Arrossi

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Abstract
Describes how three focus groups were piloted to test participatory methodologies on a small scale in a poor squatter settlement in Buenos Aires. The aim of the focus groups was to get to know local people's perspectives on the main health and habitat problems of the barrio, and to identify local facilitators with whom the project could work. Joint progress could then be made in the design and implementation of initiatives. The results of the pilot project suggested that problems of low levels of community organisation and participation were not fully overcome.

3. Regaining knowledge: an appeal to abandon illusions
Joel Bolnick and Sheela Patel

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Abstract
This article is extracted from a report outlining the experiences of a partnership between the 'People's Dialogue', a national network linking representatives from illegal and informal settlements in South Africa, and a group of three organisations in India. It describes several of the participatory methods and techniques which are used in community-based shelter training programmes, and argues that experiential learning is a more useful approach than conventional kinds of housing or shelter training.

4. The death of the clinic? participatory urban appraisal (PUA) in a Dominican Barrio

Hilary Cottam

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Abstract
The article describes the experience of participatory research in a squatter settlement in the Dominican Republic. The research was undertaken as part of a larger study which aimed to explore the links between urban women's roles and their health. The central hypothesis of the research was that the way health is conceived in a Primary Health Care clinic based model, measured by standardised health indicators, is not appropriate for women in an urban setting.

5. Participatory needs assessment in the peri-urban areas of Lusaka, Zambia
Michael Drinkwater

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Abstract
Describes a participatory appraisal and needs assessment (PANA) training workshop run by the NGO CARE-Zambia. The training was part of a strategy to reorient CARE's activities away from infrastructure improvement through food-for-work towards a more holistic livelihoods approach. Two important initial strategy decisions had to be made: how to reorient project staff; and how to generate greater participation by the communities concerned. The article outlines the methodological approach adopted, which was a combination of Training for Transformation (TfT) and PRA, and discusses some early trends and lessons.

6. PALM in slum improvement projects: a training experience from India
Sheelu Francis

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Abstract
Slum improvement projects (SIPs) are integrated urban development projects which incorporate physical improvements with community development programmes. The article describes the use of PALM to increase community participation in slum improvement projects in urban slums in India. Experience has shown that while PALM can help to enhance the process of people's participation, it needs to be accompanied by attitudinal and organisational change to be really effective.

7. Showing what you mean (not just talking about It)
Tony Gibson

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Abstract
This article deals with the application of Planning for Real, a set of community-building tools, in cities and in urban fringe estates, and in particular where all sense of community has been lost and where there is profound mutual distrust between the residents and the local officials. The method allows people to explore possibilities, sort out options, rank priorities, share out responsibilities and set out a plan of action.

8. Targeting aid to the poorest in urban Ethiopia - is it possible? rapid urban appraisal
Martin Leach

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Abstract
The article describes a limited, one-day RUA which was carried out in Addis Ababa as part of an assessment of the feasibility of a voucher system planned by the government to mitigate the impact of economic reform on the urban poorest. Information was sought on the characteristics, indicators and measurement of poverty, the type of assistance required, and whether potential beneficiaries would receive information about such programmes. A supplementary question of interest was whether Rapid Appraisal techniques were useful in designing such large-scale programmes.

9. Observations on urban applications of PRA methods from Ghana and Zambia: participatory poverty assessments
Andy Norton,

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Abstract
In Ghana, Zambia and Kenya participatory poverty assessments have been carried out in rural and urban areas using methods based on the RRA/PRA 'family'. This article questions some of the assumptions underlying the methods, drawing on experiences in Ghana and Zambia. It argues that assumptions of community, mutual knowledge and homogeneity in livelihood patterns derive from the rural-based traditions of the RRA/PRA approach and are not relevant to an urban context.

10. Linking government agents and local users: PUA for artisanal fishing port development
René Reusen and Jan Johnson

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Abstract
This paper considers the adaptation of Participatory Rural Appraisal to an urban artisanal fisheries environment in Conakry, Guinea. PRA was used in order to increase the awareness of port users and port authorities of the operational conditions of the port, prioritising problems. Methods of fishing, processing and marketing were also examined. Fisheries officers were trained in PRA, and were able to link their planning skills with the specialised knowledge of the fishermen, traders, smokers and boat builders to set up 'mini-projects'. The conclusion is that the use of PRA within the government structure creates flexibility in planning, transferring responsibility to the managing committee.

11. Community participation in the sustainable development of human settlements in Mexico City

Gustavo Romero, Patricia Nava and Lilia Palacios

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Abstract
This article gives an overview of housing and environmental problems in the metropolitan area of Mexico City. It describes the history of attempts to encourage participation in two particular cases, and discusses the basic elements of the methodology used to conduct these processes.

12. Community participation and empowerment: putting theory into practice
David Wilcox

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Abstract
The article provides a summary of a new 'Guide to Effective Participation', which offers an effective framework for thinking about involvement, empowerment and partnership. It also provides an A to Z of key issues and practical techniques for effective participation.

13. Bottom-up planning for urban development: the 'development planning for real' pilot project
Ellen Wratten

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Abstract
This article describes 'Development Planning for Real', a new approach for integrating participation into the urban planning process. It has grown out of 'Planning for Real', which is discussed in the article by Tony Gibson in the same issue of RRA Notes. Early pilot results from Cambodia, Tanzania and Zambia suggest that the approach can be successfully used to generate a community-controlled planning process in both rural and urban contexts, and in a variety of societies and cultures.

14. The million houses programme in Sri Lanka

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Abstract
This paper describes the community action planning approach of the Urban Housing Division of Sri Lanka's National housing Development Authority. The Million Houses Programme aimed to assist the process of household construction and improvement through the provision of loan finance to low-income household in both urban and rural areas. With the development of the community action planning approach, the focus became the empowerment of the population in low-income settlements.

Endnotes

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