Participatory Learning and Action 20:
RRA Notes 20: Livestock
IIED, April 1994. 165 pp.
Guest Editors: Kate Kirsopp-Reed and Fiona Hinchcliffe
Out of print except as part of a complete set of back issues:
Summary
Livelihood security encompasses not only access to food and the resources required to produce it in the present, but also those required to maintain production in the future, and the social networks which are necessary for survival in the longer term. Among the vulnerable groups whose livelihoods are under threat are smallholder farmers and pastoralists, for whom livestock plays a significant role in the support of their livelihood and lifestyle.
Among researchers and development practitioners alike, there is recognition that the use of the range of techniques known as PRA involves far more than a series of methodologies for improving the speed or efficacy of data collection. This special issue of RRA Notes therefore attempts to bring together some ‘participatory’ examples of practice and experience in the fields of livestock production and planning with livestock owners.
Editorial: PRA and livestock development: some challenges
Cathy Watson and Adrian Cullis
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SECTION A: Methods
1. A review of PRA methods for livestock research and development
Kate Kirsopp-Reed
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Abstract
This paper reviews a selection of PRA techniques that are either currently in use or are believed to have potential application with communities who depend primarily on livestock for their livelihood. The methods discussed include observation and village walks, semi-structured interviews, case histories and animal biographies, maps and models, transects, diagramming, seasonal calendars, ranking and matrices. The paper concludes with a summary of the range of information that could be gathered with the help of local informants using some of the tools described.
SECTION B: Case Studies:
Animal Health
2.Ethnoveterinary question list
Barbara Grandin and John Young
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Abstract
The article focuses on the collection and use of ethnoveterinary data in the context of community-based animal health care training programmes in Kenya. The programmes ranged from pastoral areas such as Samburu and Pokot to settled farming in Meru and Machakos and were carried out by the Kenya Livestock Programme (KLP) of the Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) in collaboration with various community-based NGOs. The lessons learned in the programme and directions for the future are also discussed.
3. Planning a community animal health care programme in Afghanistan
Tim Leyland
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Abstract
PRA methods were used during a survey carried out by VetAid project staff at the request of an agro-pastoral community in Daye Chopan District in Afghanistan. The survey aimed to identify decision-making processes in the community, the problems of different wealth groups, physical and cultural restraints, and indigenous technical knowledge. The survey brought to light a severe animal health problem which affected the poorest members of the community most severely. Consultation with community leaders about ways of solving this problem resulted in a project for training livestock keepers to treat, prevent and control the most serious diseases, as ranked by the community.
4. Seasonal disease incidence in the Sanaag Region of Somaliland
David Hadrill and Haroon Yusuf
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Abstract
This article describes a seasonal disease calendar exercise which was carried out with herders in the Sanaag region of Somaliland. The information it provided was then used to plan a Primary Veterinary Assistant training programme. One surprising finding was that common ailments that cause loss of production were considered by the herders to be less important than infrequent, but often terminal, infectious diseases.
5. Livestock healthcare for Tibetan agro-pastoralists: application of Rapid Rural Appraisal techniques
Claire Heffernan
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Abstract
A rapid appraisal (RA) was conducted with Tibetan agro-pastoralists of the Himalayas with the aim of obtaining an understanding of the primary livestock healthcare system and local knowledge of livestock diseases and healing. Various methods were used, including key informant interviews, individual interviews and livestock disease ranking. These techniques were found to be particularly useful for gathering information with a socio-cultural grounding, in a context where religious beliefs and livestock healthcare are inextricably linked.
6. Evaluation of an animal health improvement programme in Nepal
John Young, Henk-Peter Dijkema, Karen Stoufer, Narayan Ojha, Goma Shrestha and Lava Thapa
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Abstract
The United Mission to Nepal Animal Health Improvement Project has been training Village Animal Health Workers (VAHW) in Pokhara, Nepal for the last decade. This article outlines some of the techniques that were used to evaluate the subsequent progress of the trainees. General village-level information was gathered using various participatory methods. Semi-structured interviews were also carried out individually with male and female farmers and VAHWs to find out how the VAHWs assessed their own work and how the farmers viewed the service they received.
Section C : Case Studies:
Animal Production
7. Sheep husbandry among Tzotzil Indians: who learns from whom?
Raul Perezgrovas, Marisela Peralta and Pastor Pedraza
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Abstract
Sheep have been reared by the Tzotzil Indians in Highland Chiapas in southern Mexico for over 450 years. Following the failure of various government programmes intended to raise productivity, this study tried a new approach to improving sheep husbandry management. The researchers followed the herds, making observations and interviewing the shepherdesses individually. Previous programmes had failed because of a lack of understanding of the culture of the Tzotzil Indians, in which sheep are viewed as sacred animals. As a result, many of the recommendations were not only inappropriate, but opposed to Tzotzil culture. The study found that the shepherdesses have designed and perfected a management system, based on a blend of Spanish and traditional practices, that has proved very effective.
8. The progeny history data collection technique: a case study from Samburu District, Kenya
Karen Iles
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Abstract
Progeny histories are essentially livestock histories which describe the fate of all the offspring of a given female animal. They can be used to collect information on a large number of animals in a short period of time. This article describes how this technique was used, in conjunction with a variety of other data collection methods, in Samburu District, Kenya. The study set out to assess the nature of animal health problems, as well as existing levels of veterinary knowledge among pastoralists, and availability of existing animal health services.
9. Rapid appraisal techniques: a tool for planning and managing animal health and production development programmes
Mauro Ghirotti
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Abstract
This paper outlines the main steps in carrying out a rapid appraisal (RA) to provide a quick, systematic and cost-effective picture of livestock conditions and veterinary problems, especially in agro-pastoral communities. It is concluded that rapid assessment methods are a good complement to, although not a substitute for, more quantitative methods.
10. Ranking with Shagaa in Mongolia
Adrian Cullis
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Abstract
'Shagaa' (a bag of sheep and goats' knucklebones) can be found in most Mongolian households. They are used like dice or counters, each facet of the bone representing a different livestock type, in about twenty different games. In this exercise herders used the shagaa bones to rank winter livestock losses over the last ten years. The technique proved useful for illustrating the trends in livestock losses over the years, and providing a basis for discussion. The paper concludes that there is great potential for much wider use of shagaa in ranking and other participatory techniques with Mongolian herders.
Section D : Case Studies:
Natural Resource Management
11. Browse ranking in Zimbabwe
Ian Scoones
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Abstract
This short paper reports on the use of browse ranking in southern Zimbabwe. Two types of ranking were conducted. First, a simple scoring of a list of all available trees in the area was carried out. Next, a more focused matrix ranking explored a few key species against a range of criteria. The paper concludes that ranking exercises can provide high quality information quickly and effectively, and can therefore be useful planning tools for helping to design fodder improvement programmes with herd owners.
12. Natural resource mapping and seasonal variations and stresses in Mongolia
Robin Mearns, D. Shombodon, G. Narangerel, U. Tuul, A. Enkhamgalan, B. Myagmarzhav, B. Bayanjargal and B. Bekhsuren
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Abstract
The Policy Alternatives for Livestock Development (PALD) project aims to facilitate the transition from a centrally planned to a market economy in the extensive livestock sector which dominates the Mongolian rural economy. This report outlines some of the participatory research methods which were used during the training of the Mongolian research team. The methods described include wealth ranking, participatory mapping, transects, ranking of grazing resources, and seasonal calendars showing production, climatic variations, incidence of disease and labour requirements.
13. Mapping of seasonal migrations in the Sanaag Region of Somaliland
David Hadrill and Haroon Yusuf
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Abstract
An ActionAid programme in the Sanaag region of Somaliland provides basic animal health care to the pastoral communities living in the area. Participatory methods have been used by the project staff to build up a more detailed picture of the herders' lifestyle, particulary management of communal resources, animal husbandry practices and methods of managing disease. This article describes mapping exercises which were carried out to chart the seasonal migration patterns followed by different groups of pastoralists in the region.
SECTION E: Case studies:
Socio-Economic Dimensions
14. Pastoral production in Mongolia from a gender perspective
Louise Cooper and Narangerel Gelezhamstin
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Abstract
The Policy Alternatives for Livestock Development (PALD) project was established to research and make policy recommendations on the liberalisation of the Mongolian pastoral economy and its impact within the household. The paper discusses the organisation of pastoral production at the household level from a gender perspective. Using participatory methods it was found that a clear division of labour exists within the household, based on gender and age.
15. Historical matrices: a method for monitoring changes in seasonal consumption patterns in Mongolia
Louise Cooper and Narangerel Gelezhamstin
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Abstract
This note reports on the use of matrices as a tool for evaluating the impact of economic liberalisation on consumption patterns among Mongolian pastoral communities. The consumption matrices of a rich household and a poor household indicate that consumption patterns have changed significantly during the five years since privatisation and decollectivisation.
16. Livestock, livelihood and drought: a PRA exercise in Botswana
Neela Mukherjee
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The PRA exercise described in this paper was part of an FAO PRA training workshop which was carried out at a time when local people were experiencing one of the worst droughts of the century. The exercise highlighted the central importance of livestock to the village economies. The visual methods brought to the surface hidden problems, priorities, preferences and uses of livestock, and helped with deeper probing of issues which were important to the villagers.
17. Proportional piling in Turkana: a case study
Cathy Watson
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Abstract
The Turkana people of north-west Kenya are nomadic pastoralists, whose livelihood depends largely on their animals. A study was commissioned to investigate the socio-economic context of Turkana living along the lakeshore. This case study focuses on the technique of proportional piling, which was used to investigate the relative contribution of different economic activities to household food supply. The exercise was carried out twice, for the wet and the dry seasons, to enable seasonal differences to be assessed and discussed. It was found to be a simple, visual method for illustrating relative values and proportions from the perspective of the respondents.
18. Evaluation of a community-based buffalo project in Tamil Nadu
John Devavaram
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Abstract
The study describes a mid-term evaluation of a community-based dairy buffalo project in Tamil Nadu. The project assists families drawn from the socially and economically deprived sectors of society, mostly landless, to purchase a dairy buffalo. The aim of the evaluation was to provide a clear socio-economic-cultural perception of the project from the beneficiaries' perspective. It was found that the project had failed to achieve a number of its objectives. This was mainly because an in-depth consultation with its intended beneficiaries had not been carried out before the project was implemented.
19. The problem and solution game
Jeremy Swift and Abdi Noor Umar
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Abstract
This paper is based on socio-economic research on the Isiolo Livestock Development Programme in Kenya. It describes a ranking game which was played by the research team with the inhabitants of Isiolo. The game is based on a well-known and commonly played board game, and is best played after a community has been ranked according to wealth. The aim was to get groups of farmers to identify and rank their own problems, and then suggest ways of solving them. It resulted that livestock management problems were the overwhelming concern of the rich while the poor were more concerned by their lack of livestock.
20. Success ranking in Garba Tulla, Kenya
Stella Maranga
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Abstract
A restocking project in Isiolo District in north-east Kenya aimed to help displaced families go back to a 'traditional' pastoral way of life by giving them goats. Success ranking was one of the PRA techniques used to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the scheme. The objective was to determine each individual household's level of success and to elicit the local people's perception of success.
21. Livestock, livelihood and change: the versatility and richness of historical matrices
Karen and Mark Schoonmaker Freudenberger
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Abstract
Historical matrices can help connect the facets of lives revealed through research focused on the present situation with larger trends in people's lives. They are effective in facilitating local people's own analyses of how their situation has changed over time and the causes and consequences of that change. This paper gives three examples illustrating the range of issues that historical matrices can illuminate, focusing on the roles of livestock in livelihood strategies. One matrix is shown and briefly discussed for each case. The paper concludes with five tips for doing historical matrices.
SECTION F: Case Studies:
Land Tenure, Conflict and Institutions
22. The application of PRA methods to the study of conflict management in a pastoral society
Michael Bollig
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Abstract
A two-year project investigated modes of conflict management in a pastoral society in north-western Kenya, and tried to find causes for conflict behaviour. PRA methods were used in an effort to speed up the normally lengthy process of obtaining data on conflict management. The study found that internal conflict was managed fairly successfully despite being thoroughly informal. This stood in sharp contrast to violent inter-ethnic conflicts. The reasons for these differences were many and complex. The paper concludes that although an appreciable amount of descriptive data may be gathered by using PRA methods, they are more limited when it comes to identifying the causes of conflict behaviour.
23. Institution ranking and social mapping in rural Mongolia
Robin Mearns and D. Bayartsogt
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Abstract
This paper describes how PRA methods were used to try to understand herders' perceptions of the various institutions they participate in. Social mapping was used to identify the composition of informal neighbourhood communities. Ranking and scoring were used mainly to understand herders' perceptions of the institutions of which they are members.
24. Livestock rehabilitation programme in Mozambique
Anabela Braganca
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Abstract
Thousands of farmers who sought refuge in urban centres during the ten-year civil war in Mozambique are now returning to their farms. In response to this changing situation, VetAid, a UK-based NGO, is planning a community restocking programme. PRA methods were used to gather information on the socio-economic, ecological and political conditions in the villages. This information was then used help design a restocking programme appropriate to the needs of the community. The article describes some of the methods which were used, which included wealth ranking, informal interviews, matrix ranking, diagrams and historical transects.
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